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Introduction

South Korea is a country swathed in green, prodding its stony fingers skyward, and the Koreans are a people obsessed with nature, and with mountains in particular. Wherever you travel, you'll see them out in the open air, clad in the latest adventure fashions, pushing ever onward and upward.

It's a miracle that South Korea still exists. With China looming to its west and Japan nudging it from the east, it's no wonder the country has played unwilling host to centuries of war games. But no matter how many times its neighbours try to swallow it, South Korea manages to survive intact.

South Koreans attribute their indefatigable culture to the binding agents of Confucianism, language and pride. The stunning landscape has also played a big part in creating a cohesive Korean identity.

Full country name: Republic of Korea
Area: 99,373 sq km
Population: 48 million
Capital City: Seoul (pop 10.3 million)
People: Koreans, expats (mostly American)
Language: Korean, English
Religion: Christianity, Buddhism, Confucianism, Shamanism
Government: republic
Head of State: President Roh Moo-hyun

GDP: US$475 billion
GDP per capita: US$10,550
Annual Growth: 2%
Inflation: 4%
Major Industries: Shipbuilding, cars, machinery, electronics, machinery, chemicals, textiles
Major Trading Partners: USA, Japan, Germany

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History

According to Korean legend, the god-king Tangun founded the Korean nation in BC 2333. By the first century AD, the Korean Peninsula was divided into the kingdoms of Shilla, Koguryo, and Paekche. Shilla, with the aid of Tang China, unified the peninsula in 668 AD. With its center at Kyongju, the dynasty flourished for roughly three centuries before internal strife and foreign pressures led to its downfall in the 10th century. The Koryo dynasty--from which the Western name "Korea" is derived--succeeded Ssilla in 935. Among the cultural achievements of Koryo was the development of improved ceramics production and the world's first moveable metal type.

Following a military coup in1392, Koryo was supplanted by the Choseon, established by members of the Yi clan and lasted until 1910 when Japan formally annexed the Korean Peninsula. Throughout much of its history, Korea has been invaded, influenced, and fought over by its larger neighbors. It has suffered about 900 invasions during its 2,000 years of recorded history. Korea was under Mongolian occupation from 1231 until the early 14th century and was repeatedly ravaged by Chinese (government and rebel) armies. Beginning in 1592, the Japanese warlord, Hideyoshi, launched several military campaigns to take the peninsula. The Choseon Kingdom managed to repel Hideyoshi's armies with the aid of Ming China. However, the experience impelled the Yi court to choose a policy of foreign isolation, with the exception of China. It was this period of isolationism from which Korea earned the name "The Hermit Kingdom" in the 19th century.

Despite the closed-door-policy of the Choseon dynasty, China retained it position as the major source of influence on Korea, as it has for much of Korean history. Historically, Korea was a part of China's "tribute" system under which Korea maintained its independence but recognized China as a "cultural superior." Although the isolationist policies of the Yi court allowed the Choseon dynasty to maintain stability, the country fell behind international developments and subsequently was given a rude awakening to the new world order that existed in the latter half of the 19th century. Korea's policy of isolationism formally ended when the major Western powers and Japan sent warships to forcibly open the country. At the same time, Japanese, Chinese, and Russian competition in Northeast Asia led to armed conflict, and foreign intervention established dominance in Korea. China's defeat by Japan during the Sino-Japanese War (1894) secured for Japan suzerain rights over Korea. Japan formally annexed it in 1910.

The Japanese colonial era was characterized by tight control from Tokyo and ruthless efforts to supplant Korean language and culture. Organized Korean resistance, most notably the March 1, 1919 Independence Movement, was unsuccessful, and Japan remained firmly in control until the end of World War II. Meanwhile, the so-called Provisional Government of Korea was established in Shanghai, China (1919) by overseas Korean nationalists although their influence on politics was limited following the Japanese suppression of the March 1st Movement.

Toward the conclusion of the Second World War, the participants of the April 1945 Yalta Conference agreed to establish a four-power trusteeship for Korea. The trusteeship of the U.S., U.K., Soviet Union, and China was intended as a temporary administrative measure pending democratic elections for the formation of an official Korean Government. With the unexpected early surrender of Japan in September 1945, the United States proposed--and the Soviet Union agreed--that Japanese troops surrender to U.S. forces below the 38th parallel and to Soviet forces above.

At a December 1945 foreign ministers' conference in Moscow, it was proposed that a 5-year trusteeship be established in Korea. The Moscow conference generated a firestorm of protest in the South. Some of its most critical opponents were Korean leaders associated with the Shanghai Provisional Government. Most notable among them was the nationalist leader Syngman Rhee. The joint Soviet-American commission provided for by the Moscow Conference met intermittently in Seoul but became deadlocked over the issue of free consultations with representatives of all Korean political groups for establishment of a national government. The U.S. submitted the Korean question to the UN General Assembly for resolution in September 1947. In November, the General Assembly ruled that UN-supervised elections should be held.

The Soviet Union and Korean authorities in the North ignored the UN General Assembly resolution on elections. Nonetheless, elections were carried out under UN observation in the South, and on August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea (R.O.K.) was established. Syngman Rhee became the Republic of Korea's first president. On September 9, 1948, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (D.P.R.K.) was established in the North under Kim Il Sung. Both administrations claimed to be the only legitimate government on the peninsula.

Armed uprisings in the South and clashes between southern and northern forces along the 38th parallel began and intensified during 1948-50. Although it continued to provide modest military aid to the South, the U.S. withdrew its occupation forces by June 1949, leaving behind only a military advisory group of 500 people.

Korean War of 1950-53
On June 25, 1950, North Korean forces invaded South Korea. The UN, in accord with its Charter, engaged in its first collective action by establishing the UN Command (UNC), under which 16 member nations sent troops and assistance to South Korea. At the request of the UN Security Council, the United States, contributor of the largest contingent, led this international effort. After initially falling back to the southeastern Pusan perimeter, UN forces conducted a successful surprise landing at Incheon and rapidly advanced up the peninsula. As the main UN force approached the northern Yalu River, however, large numbers of "Chinese People's Volunteers" intervened, forcing UN troops to withdraw south of Seoul. The battle line seesawed back and forth until the late spring of 1951, when a successful offensive by UN forces was halted to enhance cease-fire negotiation prospects. The battle line thereafter stabilized north of Seoul near the 38th parallel.

Although armistice negotiations began in July 1951, hostilities continued until 1953 with heavy losses on both sides. On July 27, 1953, the military commanders of the North Korean Army, the Chinese People's Volunteers, and the UNC signed an armistice agreement at Panmunjom. Neither the United States nor South Korea is a signatory of the armistice per se, though both adhere to it through the UNC. No comprehensive peace agreement has replaced the 1953 armistice pact; thus, a condition of belligerency still technically exists on the divided peninsula.

The Military Armistice Commission (MAC) was created in 1953 to oversee and enforce the terms of the armistice. The Neutral Nation Supervisory Committee (NNSC)--originally made up of delegations from Poland and Czechoslovakia on the D.P.R.K. side and Sweden and Switzerland on the UN side--monitors the activities of the MAC. In recent years, North Korea has sought to undermine the MAC by various means. In April 1994 it declared the MAC void and withdrew its representatives. Prior to this it had forced the Czechs out of the NNSC by refusing to accept the Czech Republic as the successor state of Czechoslovakia, an original member of the NNSC. In September 1994 China recalled the Chinese People's Volunteers representatives to the MAC, and in early 1995 North Korea forced Poland to remove its representatives to the NNSC from the North Korean side of the DMZ.

Toward Democratization
Syngman Rhee served as president of the Republic of Korea until April 1960, when unrest led by university students forced him to step down. Though the constitution was amended and national elections were held in June, Maj. Gen. Park Chung Hee led an army coup against the successor government and assumed power in May 1961. After 2 years of military government under Park, civilian rule was restored in 1963. Park, who had retired from the army, was elected president and was reelected in 1967, 1971, and 1978 in highly controversial elections.

The Park era, marked by rapid industrial modernization and extraordinary economic growth, ended with his assassination in October 1979. Prime Minister Choi Kyu Ha briefly assumed office, promising a new constitution and presidential elections. However, in December 1979 Maj. Gen. Chun Doo Hwan and close military colleagues staged a coup, removing the army chief of staff and soon effectively controlling the government. University student-led demonstrations against Chun's government spread in the spring of 1980 until the government declared martial law, banning all demonstrations, and arresting many political leaders and dissidents. Special forces units in the city of Kwangju dealt particularly harshly with demonstrators and residents, setting off a chain of events that left at least 200 civilians dead. This became a critically important event in contemporary South Korean political history. Chun, by then retired from the army, officially became president in September 1980. Though martial law ended in January 1981, his government retained broad legal powers to control dissent. Nevertheless, an active and articulate minority of students, intellectuals, clergy, and others remained critical of the Chun government and demonstrated against it.

In April 1986 the President appeared to yield to demands for reform, particularly for a constitutional amendment allowing direct election of his successor. However, in June 1987 Chun suspended all discussion of constitutional revision, and the ruling Democratic Justice Party (DJP) approved Chun's handpicked successor, Roh Tae Woo. In response, students, then followed by the general public, took to the streets in protest. In a surprise move, on June 29, ruling party presidential candidate Roh Tae Woo announced the implementation of democratic reforms. The constitution was revised in October 1987 to include direct presidential elections and a strengthened National Assembly consisting of 299 members.

The main opposition forces soon split into two parties--Kim Dae-jung's Peace and Democracy Party (PPD) and Kim Young Sam's Reunification Democratic Party (RDP). With the opposition vote split, Roh Tae Woo subsequently won the December 1987 presidential election--the first direct one since 1971--with 37% of the vote.

The new constitution entered into force in February 1988 when President Roh assumed office. Elections for the National Assembly were held on April 26. President Roh's ruling Democratic Justice Party was then able to win only 34% of the vote in the April 1988 National Assembly elections--the first time the ruling party had lost control of the Assembly since 1952.

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Culture

Korean society is based on the tenets of Confucianism, a system of ethics developed in China around 500 BC. Confucianism is big on devotion and respect - for parents, family, friends and those in positions of authority. Confucius also emphasised justice, peace, education, reform and humanitarianism. Many Koreans attribute their country's remarkable success in recent decades to this attitude. In modern Korean society, Confucianism is most noticeable in relations between people. The Five Relationships prescribe behaviour between ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, old and young, and between friends. If you fall outside any of these relationships, you do not, effectively, exist. Many travellers to Korea find the locals rude: they're probably not; chances are they just haven't noticed you. Once you're introduced to someone, you'll fall within the rules for friends and things will start looking up.

The South Koreans have turned their hand to just about any art form you can name. Traditional music is similar to that of Japan and China, with an emphasis on strings. The two main forms are the stately chongak and the folksier minsogak. Among the folk dances are drum dances (mugo - a hectic, lively court dance where the participants wear drums around their necks), mask dances (talchum), monk dances (seungmu) and spirit-cleansing dances (salpuri).

The most important work of Korean literature is Samguk Yusa, written in the 12th century by the monk Illyon. Recent literature has had a dissident twist to it, with lots of work being produced by student protesters and Taoist-style ecologists. Koreans also consider their language an art form, and are particularly proud of their script, hangeul.

South Korea is also strong in the visual arts. Traditional painting has strong Chinese and calligraphic elements, with the brush line being the most important feature. Most traditional sculpture is Buddhist, and includes statues and pagodas - one of the best Buddhas is at Sokkuram. Shamanists do a great line in woodcarving. Seoul has several art sculpture parks, where modern sculptors show their works. Seoul is also a showpiece of modern and traditional architecture, including the city gates and the Chosun-era Gyeongbokgung Palace.

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Getting There & Away

A number of international carriers fly to South Korea. The international airport is in Incheon, 60km (37mi) from the capital; Gimpo airport in Seoul now operates domestic services only. The international airports in Busan and Jeju have flights to and from China and Japan. If you're flying from Japan, Tokyo is the best place for cheap fares. During the World Cup, look out for deals with Korean Air for flights to and from Japan. For flights plus accommodation, World Cup travel brochures offer special (if a bit pricey) packages. Departure tax on international flights is to be paid in won and costs in the vicinity of US$10.

Courier companies offer discounted airfares to passengers willing to accompany packages through customs; you may have to surrender all your baggage allowance and only be able to take hand luggage. If you want to extend your trip, you could consider a round-the-world ticket; this is a good-value way of seeing several countries, as long as you don't mind booking your stops in advance.

If you have the time, the Trans-Mongolian railway via Ulan Baatar to Beijing, with onward connections to Shanghai, is one of the world's acclaimed rail trips. From Shanghai, there are boats to Incheon; book this in advance. Ferries also run from Busan to Shimonoseki, Hiroshima, Hitakatsu, Izuhara, Kokura, Osaka and Hakata in Japan, Dalian, Dandong, Weihai, Yantai City, Qingdao, Yingkou and Tianjin in China. You can get some great combined ferry-train tickets, eg, express train from Seoul to Busan, jetfoil to Hakata, plus a rail ticket to Osaka. Other combinations include: Seoul-Tokyo, Daegu-Kobe, Daejeon-Hiroshima, etc. To get to/from Russia there are ferries between Sokcho in Korea and Zarubino in Russia. The seafaring adventurer could hitch a ride on a cargo freighter; it's not the quickest way to go, but you'll see a fair few ports on the way and it's a low-cost option.

Getting Around

All South Korea's main cities are linked by air, but the distances are small so it's usually not worth the extra cost. During the World Cup, however, Korean Air has plans to charge a flat fee of US$35 per single domestic flight. Land travel may still prove a better bet: buses are fast, safe and on time; the train network is extensive and services are frequent. There are two types of bus, express and intercity - the former go direct and the latter stop. Seats are reserved on the express buses (if you miss your bus, you must buy a new ticket), and unreserved on the intercity services.

The trains are also efficient: a high-speed service runs the length of the country and there are several local trains. The quickest trains are the saemaeul, with the mugunghwa not far behind. Tongil trains are cheap but lack air-con, and the 4th-class bidulgi and kkachi go at a snail's pace. Rail passes (KR Pass) can be a good bet if you're planning on travelling around for a few days. Allowing three, five, seven or 10 days unlimited travel on Korean trains, at the moment they can only be purchased in Japan or America, but there are plans to widen their availability. For more details on the rail pass see www.korail.go.kr

Driving in South Korea can be difficult: it's expensive and traffic jams are a common problem. If that doesn't put you off, make sure you take an International Driving Permit. Long-distance share taxis, known as bullet taxis, go between big cities and major tourist sights. They're not metred so you'll need to negotiate a price before you set off. Cycling in Seoul is a bit of an extreme sport, but it can be a pleasant way of exploring the rural areas.

Water-babies can take ferries from the mainland to offshore islands and several lakes. Most cities have buses, but the stop names are not in English. Seoul, Busan, and several other cities have subways, which are convenient, cheap and comprehensible (all the signs are in Korean and English). Taxis cost more than the subway, but if you fancy treating yourself, deluxe taxis are comfortable, and the driver is smartly dressed and speaks English.

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Attractions

Seoul (Seoul Hotels & Seoul Resort Reservation Service)

Seoul is an intriguing city transforming itself from the Yi Dynasty capital of the Hermit Kingdom to a major mover and shaker on the international scene, especially in the field of commerce and sports. Nowhere else is the Korean drive to come to terms with a turbulent and fractured past so evident.

Despite its tall buildings and neon lights, Seoul offers the visitor a wealth of cultural sights. The central city area is ringed with royal palaces, and around the old city gates are enormous bustling markets. Skyscrapers jostle with a maze of traditional-style Korean houses and inns.

Gyeongju

For 1000 years, up until the 10th century, Gyeongju was the capital of the Silla dynasty. Nearly 1000 years later, Gyeongju is an open-air museum masquerading as a small, provincial town littered with ancient rubble. Those keen on Silla culture or archaeology will be in heaven, fossicking through the remains of temples, tombs, shrines, palaces, pleasure gardens and castles, but more ordinary folk will probably find Gyeongju only has a day's-worth of entertainment.

In the centre of town, Tumuli Park is a huge walled area with 20 royal tombs, one opened in cross section. Across the road from the park, the Noseo-dong Tombs offer a chance to see more Silla burial sites, excavated in the 20th century. A few hundred metres away, Cheomseongdae looks like a pile of rocks but is actually one of the oldest observatories in East Asia. The pile of rocks is a mathematical allegory for the days and months of the year.

The crowning glory of Silla temple architecture is Bulguksa, a magnificent temple built on a series of stone terraces about 16km (10mi) from the town. The eaves and internal painting of this gorgeous temple are one of the artistic highlights of Asia. Stand on the highest level of the temple and you'll look down over a rolling sea of tiles. High above the temple, a seated Buddha (usually crawling with tourists) gazes over Gyeongju from Seokguram Grotto. There are plenty of places to stay in Gyeongju, from backpacker-friendly hostels to super-deluxe casino hotels, and a similarly large range of places to eat.

Seoraksan National Park

Top of the charts in the Korean national park scene, Seoraksan is spectacular. Near the DMZ on the east coast, this is a land of high craggy peaks, lush forests, tremendous waterfalls, boulder-strewn white water rivers, beaches and ancient temples. Autumn is the best time to visit, when the changing leaves make the mountains a riot of colour.

Being so gorgeous, the park is, of course, outrageously popular - don't expect a solitary wilderness experience. The best way to escape the crush is to carry a tent and hike for a few days into Inner Seorak, in the west of the park. For those who prefer a quick fix of nature with a dash of luxury, try the Osaek Hot Springs in South Seorak. Those with oversized lungs and stretchy hamstrings will doubtless enjoy a hike up Daecheonbong, the park's highest mountain, while the more sedentary can catch a cable car to the top of Gwongeumseong: all the views, none of the pain.

Most of the park's accommodation, including camping, is at Osaek Springs and Seorak-dong (in Outer Seorak), and this is where the crowds accumulate. If you want to stay in quieter Inner Seorak you'll probably need to carry a tent, but if you don't have one you can rough it in the park's few shelters. Direct buses run between Seoul and Seorak-dong.

Songnisan National Park

Central Korea's top scenic spot, Songnisan means 'remote from the mundane world mountains', and indeed it is. The place is a magnet for hikers, with heaps of excellent walks. The thing that really drags them in by the busload though, is Beopjusa, one of the largest and most magnificent temple sites in Korea.

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Money & Costs

Currency: Republic of Korean Won

Meals

Budget: US$2-3
Mid-range: US$3-16
High: $16+

Lodging

Budget: US$7-20
Mid-range: US$20-60
High: US$60+

South Korea is steadily shouldering its way into the big league when it comes to costs - Japan is about the only place that's still more expensive. If you're staying in a hostel or a traditional Korean inn, you might be able to get by on US$30 a day. If you're planning to travel around and would prefer more luxurious accommodation, you should expect to spend significantly more. As for sustenance, the nightlife in Seoul will dig into your coffers, but food is generally quite cheap - US$7 should fill you up. Travelling will up your spending, but happily Korean transport is both efficient and reasonably priced. A high-speed train runs the length of the country and a ticket on this only costs US$40.

US military bases will let you pay in US dollars (should you feel the need to pick up a stealth bomber or two), but everywhere else you'll need won. Cash US dollars are the easiest to exchange, but any other hard currencies, especially yen, shouldn't pose a problem. You'll get a better rate on travellers cheques than cash - those in US dollars will be more widely accepted. There are ATMs all over Seoul, Busan and other major cities, but the instructions are in Korean. International credit cards are widely accepted.

South Koreans don't expect you to tip, particularly as a 10% service charge is added to the bill in many mid-range and all top-end hotels. You'll be wasting your time bargaining in department stores - you'll have about as much chance as you would in K-mart - but you might as well give it a go in small shops and markets. Even fancy-looking tourist shops will usually bend a little on their prices. If you're going to haggle, be polite, smile and don't get grumpy.

South Korea has witnessed an amazing rags-to-riches story over the past four decades. The man to thank for this economic miracle is former dictator Park Chung-hee who ruled the country from 1961 until his assassination in 1979. His 'government-guided management' model of five-year plans and 'export or die' programmes involved paying low salaries at home, restricting imports and borrowing billions of US dollars in cash (mostly from the USA). Within a decade, South Korea's economic indicators went through the roof and the country joined Hong Kong, Taiwan and Singapore as one of Asia's 'economic tigers' (also called 'little dragons').

Unfortunately, 'government-guided management' was a two-edged sword. Unlike the other tigers, the South Korean economy was directed by a swelling civil service. In time, the bloated bureaucracy came to control everything from the flavour of ice cream to the price of ginseng. In recent years there has been a sincere effort to slay the red-tape dragon, but the bureaucrats are being wrenched from their desks kicking and screaming.

A key feature of Korea's economy are the jaebol, huge family-run conglomerates that owe their survival to government-subsidised bank loans. The tight-knit relationship between the jaebol and government officials has led to more than a few indictments for corruption, and has made the phrase 'Korea, Inc' more of a truism than the more commonly known 'Japan, Inc'. Officially there are 30 jaebol. The top five, Hyundai, Samsung, Daewoo, LG (Lucky Goldstar) and SK (Sunkyong), account for more than a third of the total sales of all South Korean companies and 50% of the country's exports. In 1997, Asia lurched into an economic crisis, and South Korea was badly affected. As a direct result, President Kim Dae-jung has launched a number of bold reforms aimed at reducing the power and influence of the jaebol. The reform process - still not complete - promises to restructure South Korea's economy considerably.

Sharply increasing wages is another big change of recent years. From the late 1980s onward, the country has often been rocked by large and occasionally violent strikes. Nowadays, South Korea is no longer considered a low-wage country. Many companies have responded by moving factories to China, or by hiring illegal immigrants to do the drudge work. It's a scene not unlike that found in many developed Western economies.

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Facts for the Traveler

Visas: With an onward ticket visitors from almost anywhere - except countries not recognised by South Korea (Cuba, Laos & Cambodia) - can stay in the country for 30 days without a visa. If you're from Western Europe, Australia or New Zealand, you can get up to 90 days visa-free. Canadians receive a six-month permit and citizens of Italy and Portugal receive 60-day permits. Everyone else has to extend after their first 30 days. Extensions last for around 90 days, and if you know you're going to need one it's worth getting it before you leave home.
Time: GMT/UTC +9
Dialling Code: 82
Electricity: 110/200V ,60Hz
Weights & measures: Metric

When to Go

Korea has four distinct seasons, with a wet monsoon/summer in the middle of the year, and a very cold winter from November to March. Jeju-do off the south coast is the warmest and wettest place in the country.

If you possibly can, time your visit to South Korea for autumn (September to November). It's sunny, the skies are blue, and Korea's spectacular autumn foliage is a real draw. Winter is cold but dry, and a good time to visit if you like skiing, snow-draped temples, a dearth of tourists and crisp (ie below freezing) weather. Spring (April to May) can be beautiful, but it's also the most popular time with Japanese tourists and you'll have trouble getting mid to top-end accommodation. Summer is hot, muggy, crowded, wet, typhoon-prone and expensive.

Events

The first day of the first moon is Seollal (lunar new year; January/February), when South Korea grinds to a halt. The Cherry Blossom Festival in Jinhae in the province of Gyeongsangnam-do usually falls in early April (if the weather and trees cooperate). Lantern parades are held for Buddha's Birthday, celebrated in late April or early May. In Seoul, there is an evening parade from Tapgol Park to Jogyesa on the Sunday prior to the actual holiday. June sees processions of shamans and mask dances at the Dano Festival, and in September the National Folk Arts Festival showcases Korean culture. South Korea's biggest holiday is Chuseok ('Korean Thanksgiving'). At this time (September/October), cities throughout the country empty as people return to their family homes to pay homage to their ancestors.

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